When Hitler swept through Western Europe in the early summer of 1940, his ally Mussolini launched his own invasion. The Greeks were outnumbered more than two to one, yet they quickly pushed the Italians back, offering the first clear sign that Italy’s army was poorly prepared for combat. Mussolini had set his sights on transforming the Mediterranean Sea, which he called “Mare Nostrum” or “Our Sea,” into an Italian domain. His plan involved building a new Roman Empire that would expand along the northern Mediterranean coast and deeper into North Africa.
In September 1940, he invaded Egypt and took the small coastal town of Sidi Barrani. The Italians halted there and entrenched themselves. Britain assembled every available unit for a counteroffensive across Libya. Although almost ten times fewer in number than the Italians, the British forces managed to gain ground, advancing roughly 600 miles over nearly a year despite the difficult, rugged terrain that hindered communication and movement.
Mussolini’s imperial ambitions extended further. In April 1939, he had occupied Albania and secured Libya and Abyssinia, modern-day Ethiopia. To the south, British troops invaded Italian-controlled Abyssinia, and the fighting persisted for nearly 12 months. His invasion of Greece the following year ended in failure, with the Greeks refusing to become an Italian colony.
The Italian army suffered heavy losses, with more than 100,000 troops taken prisoner, and their empire contracted under pressure. By early March 1941, the Italians had not only been expelled from Greece but also from much of neighboring Albania. This situation presented Hitler with a dilemma. Should he divert troops from other parts of Europe to assist his crucial ally Mussolini or leave him stranded to his fate?
He chose to intervene. In April 1941, more than half a million German soldiers poured into Yugoslavia and Greece. At the same time, a rising star in the German military, selected personally by Hitler, arrived at Tripoli in February 1941. Erwin Rommel was poised to drive British forces from the region entirely.
He quickly moved toward British positions at El Agheila and launched attacks. The Axis captured Athens in late April, forcing the British and Allied troops into a difficult retreat. Within two weeks, the campaign ended with the evacuation of 15,000 Allied soldiers and the capture of 18,000 more. About 30,000 troops were withdrawn to the British-controlled island of Crete, which soon came under constant German air assault.
The Germans seized vital airfields and began flying in reinforcements. Rommel commanded around 22,000 paratroopers and glider soldiers supported by 150 Stuka dive bombers. The German forces cut off Allied troops at the Libyan harbor of Tobruk, and the British retreat risked turning into a rout. As the Allies were pushed back steadily, they found themselves close to the Egyptian border, with Australian divisions covering the retreat.
At last, General Claude Auchinleck rallied to confront his opponent. Although the tanks suffered heavy losses, infantry units steadily advanced, and Axis troops pulled back along the coastal route all the way to their initial starting point at El Agheila. Operation Crusader began with an extensive armored battle. Once again, the British forces repeatedly outflanked their foes.
After a month of chaotic combat, Rommel withdrew, and Tobruk was relieved. The North African campaign was essentially reset. Initially, Auchinleck refused to commit until reinforcements arrived. Then on November 18, 1941, he launched a major attack.
However, after two failed attempts to relieve Tobruk, the exhausted British commander was replaced by General Claude Auchinleck. Rommel’s main offensive formed near the Egyptian village of El Alamein. His southern flank rested on the Qattara Depression, a landscape impassable to tanks. Auchinleck faced intense pressure to try again to break the siege of Tobruk.
The struggle lasted three weeks, with each side attempting to outmaneuver the other. Taking advantage of the wide-open terrain, Rommel used his tanks to maneuver around the British positions repeatedly, a tactic that would become his signature move. The Allied forces fell back toward a new defensive line just west of Tobruk, where a series of fortifications were constructed. Rommel struck this Gazala line at the end of May.
His troops continued to press their advantage with swift outflanking movements, forcing the British into retreat. Rommel’s famous 88mm anti-aircraft guns, capable of engaging tanks at long range, outmatched British armor. The German forces, now well entrenched, managed to thwart British counterattacks. Eventually, the British were forced to withdraw completely.
Three days later, Axis troops overran scattered Allied positions along the coast, dispersing British units to various bases for much-needed rest and reorganization. The British press, albeit reluctantly, dubbed Rommel the “Desert Fox” for his cunning tactics. By January 1942, Rommel’s Africa Corps was back on the offensive, swinging his armor around the British forces. However, this time the British were better prepared and tried to hold their ground.
On July 1, 1942, Rommel launched another offensive. This time, the British defenses held firm. Churchill grew increasingly frustrated with the British army’s lack of progress, likening the situation to two exhausted boxers. Recognizing the pressing need for change, the British replaced General Auchinleck with two new commanders: General Harold Alexander as commander-in-chief in the Near East, and General Bernard Montgomery to lead the Eighth Army in North Africa.
Even as Rommel, stretched thin and low on fuel, was forced to halt his advance, the British executed a daring strike against the Italian fleet stationed at Taranto. On November 11, 1940, 21 Swordfish torpedo bombers took off from a British aircraft carrier and launched an attack at night. The Italians were caught off guard. Three of Italy’s six battleships were severely damaged during British strikes, setting the stage for a renewed Allied effort.
Several months later, the Axis fleet was once again caught off guard near the Greek coastline. A fourth Italian battleship was damaged during the fighting, signaling the end of Mussolini’s naval challenge to Britain. It also became evident that Italy could no longer rely on maintaining dominance in the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, the island of Malta, under British control, was a strategically vital refueling station for Royal Navy submarines and aircraft operating in the Eastern Mediterranean.
During the summer of 1940, Italy began bombing Malta, marking the start of a prolonged two-year campaign that inflicted severe hardship on the island’s inhabitants. Almost by chance, a shipment of four Gladiator biplanes was discovered in crates on the island and quickly assembled. These made a significant difference in resisting the attacks. Eventually, British fighter reinforcements arrived, temporarily repelling Italian bombers.
For three weeks, the struggle for air superiority over Malta was intense. After enduring four months of relentless attacks, the island’s defenders were honored with the George Cross, the highest decoration for civilian bravery in Britain. The Luftwaffe resumed its bombardment in early 1941, inflicting further severe damage on Malta. Yet, despite the continuous assault, the island’s population persevered.
By the summer of 1942, Malta faced critical shortages of supplies and ammunition. In mid-June, the British organized a large naval escort to reinforce the island. Almost immediately, the convoy encountered stiff German resistance. For three consecutive days, intense naval battles raged in the Mediterranean, threatening to sever critical supply lines to North Africa.
Out of 17 ships, only two managed to get through. Conditions on Malta grew increasingly dire. The following August saw Britain launch Operation Pedestal, the largest convoy ever dispatched to Malta. Fourteen merchant vessels sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar toward the beleaguered island, escorted by a substantial naval force.
Axis submarines and aircraft fiercely tried to intercept and destroy the convoy. Despite the hardships, the civilians showed remarkable bravery. The British garrison held firm during a lull in the German bombing campaign in the autumn of 1941, even intensifying their efforts against Axis supply convoys heading to North Africa. In April 1942, following months of bombardment, the situation remained precarious.
Yet the island’s people remained steadfast. British efforts to disrupt Axis supply convoys across the Mediterranean became increasingly crucial. The British and Axis forces engaged in a stalemate, neither side able to secure a decisive victory. The fate of North Africa remained uncertain, heavily dependent on maintaining control of supply routes.
The Axis powers had secured control over large sections of the Mediterranean and critical supply routes at one point, compelling British units in North Africa to abandon their campaign in Libya. That winter, Britain launched what it hoped would be a decisive blow. The struggle over Malta marked a turning point for Hitler as well.
After months of brutal attacks and near-starvation, the island had survived, and its resilience would play a crucial role in the eventual Allied victory in the Mediterranean.